Tracing the History and Theories of Architecture: Documenting and Analyzing the Most Important Historical Periods that Influenced the Development of Architecture: (232 A.D -1918 A.D)

The shape of church buildings later became similar to the Roman cathedral in terms of symbolic connotations, speed of construction, Abstract The context of the research aims to explain and simplify the stages of the development of architecture in pre and post history. By focusing on the integrative relationship between theories of architecture and design across different eras, by making comparisons in the architectural style and innovative structural elements of each historical era (Christianity, Byzantine, Sassanid, Roman, Islamic, Ottoman).The subject of the research focuses on mentioning the most important historical architectural examples that exist to measure the appropriateness of using and reflecting the concept of classical architecture on our lives today, and developing strategic skills to bridge the deficiency in human needs at any time and place. And highlighting the importance of environmental factors and their impact on architectural eras.


Byzantine Architecture (324-900 A.D)
The wars of conquest were dominant in the year 476 A.D, and after that, the Roman Empire was divided into East and West, where the Western Empire preserved the Roman culture and its architectural style and became called the "Byzantine Empire".
Justinian I was the greatest of the conquerors and builders. His enduring architectural achievement was Hagia SophiaWilliam R Caraher [8].Stone is the main building material that was used in the construction and restoration of antique buildings and churches and was brought in from eastern Constantinople. Buildings were characterized by flat ceilings with domes, small, narrow and high openings, continuous walls, the use of a sophisticated program of the interior structure, lighting, and decoration to create wonderful interiorsROGER STEPHEN SHARP [9] (Figure 4).
Byzantine architecture developed to focus on the use of simple, twisted, and pendentive (hanging) domes of various domes that provided a unique way to adjust the circular shape of the dome ceiling to a square or polygonal scheme and to use abundant motifs such as mosaicMark Cartwright [10] (Figure 5).

Components
Byzantine Church Christian Church It did not contain bell towers Contained bell towers

Visual impression
The Byzantine church gives a vertical impression because of the grouping of subsidiary domes around a central dome. The eye is gradually drawn upwards towards the central culminating dome The Early Christian church gives a horizontal impression, because of the vista of columns, entablatures, and a simple timber roof. The eye is led along these horizontal lines to the apsidal sanctuary which is the important feature.

508
The shape of the openings in the Byzantine domes is characterized as circular or straight in the form of a horseshoe, small openings that allow continuous walls without interruption under the domes. Arcades; the semicircular arches on monolithic columns with convex crowns largely used in churches, especially to support galleries. Small and grouped, sometimes arranged in layers within a semicircular arc beneath the domeMark J. Johnson [11].
The pillars were widely used as a structural and aesthetic component as they consisted of one piece of colored marble.
The columns were taken from ancient Roman buildings such as monolithic shafts, capitals, Roman Ionian, Corinth, a compound that combines the sizes of the vertical Ionic system with the Corinthian rank acanthus leavesMark Cartwright [10] (Figure 6). The Byzantine decoration is characterized by being painted on marble with carefully arranged veins to form Vaults patterns. The colored decoration covered the walls, floors, ceilings, domes, and columns, where the golden color was the most popular and used.
The effect of the wonderful oriental sunlight that wore them with a piece of glowing color gave a great variety of facades. Inside, it was suitable for marble, mosaic, and plasterboard decorationJ. Arnott Hamilton [12].

One of the most famous architectural examples is Byzantine
Church-San Vitale, Ravenna-540 A.D. It was the first model ofHagia Sophia that was built 10 years later, as it features an octagonal template and exterior walls surrounded by a mobile base from the ground level and exhibited above it, and it has an apse that extends from the central core is to one of the eight sides of the external appraiserAgnellus [13] (Figure 7).

509
Due to natural disasters such as seismic tremors, the dome of Hagia Sophia was destroyed and the structure was heavily damaged, and it was replaced by a new earthquake-resistant one by an Armenian engineer called Jaradat. In 1453 it was converted into an Islamic mosque, and in 1935 it was converted into a Turkish museum, the old minarets were replaced by the minarets that stand today and the addition of Islamic platforms and artVincenzo Ruggieri [15].
The general scheme is a round hall surrounded by a square, covered with a supported dome towards the long axis of the building with half domes over semicircular bridges. In this way, a 236-foot-and 98-foot-tall cathedral with domes is developed from an impressive central room. In the north and south, the dome is located on poles that open alongside lanesWilliam Richard Letha by, Harold Swainson [16].
Hagia Sophia consists of 100 construction pillars of white, green and porous marble, the floors and sidewalks were made of large stones mixed with lead, and the dome was completely covered with mosaics and contains 40 windows, and is located in the middle of the building, which requires a coherent and distinctive structural system to support loads and weightWilliam Richard Letha by, Harold Swainson [16].     [20]. Persian architects and engineers were able to invent a technique that helps build huge domes over rectangular spaces called "squinch" as evidenced by the domes of the Ardeshir's Palace.
Where it can be defined as an architectural device through which the upper or polygonal corners are formed to form a pillar of the dome (filling the corner with a small conical vault. It has an arc on its outer diagonal face and its head in the cornerMitra Karimi [21] ( Figure 11).

Romanesque Architecture (800-1200 A.D)
The Roman churches witnessed a great development in terms of architecture, but slowly, due to climatic changes and other local conditions. King Charles the Great was the reason behind this great architectural revolution. Despite Rome's influence on the Byzantine style of architecture, it maintained a distinctive architectural style. Therefore, the design of the Roman churches was similar to the Byzantine churchesEncyclopaedia Britannica [24].

512
The most important characteristic of Roman architecture is the expression or emphasis on each structural section to produce uniform and easy-to-assemble structures, the development of pavement forms, an introduction to the triforium exhibition regular transit, the inclusion of wall corridors, elevators with radiant chapels, the development of new concepts in external masses, increased mastery For architectural carving, heavy stone construction with narrow openings, features such as round arch, thigh basement, barrel vault, vaulted rib development, jumping pole, central and western Spiers for churches and the replacement of columns, columns, decoration, and galleriesRishabh Shrivastav [28].
The Roman era is characterized by three types of buildings, which are churches, monasteries, and castles, where they were combined with characteristics, which are thick heavy walls that support the stone surfaces, the appearance of full ground, large and simple engineering blocks, the exterior reflects the internal structure and organization, the interior designs tend to be dark due to the huge walls Dictating small windows, increasing complexity in the basement to encompass large areas -casks, thighs, and ribs are usedAlida D [29].
The most prominent example of the Roman Church is the Church of S. Michael, Pavia, which follows the plan of the Latin cross. The plan of the Roman cathedral was subject to new developments during this period, and they added a new area called "the sanctuary" or "altar" and worked to increase the width and length of the passages to match the shape of the longitudinal cross Alberto Arecchi [30] (Figure 14).

513
When tracing the Roman architecture, it is necessary to highlight the building of the Italian Leaning Tower of Pisa, where its style adheres to the type of basilica church outside. The focus was on the beauty and accuracy of the ornamental details -the use of ornamental arcades, and the use of marble to face walls. Originally, the builders' goal was not to construct the tilted tower, but because the site soil was not well examined, which led to the tilt of the tower automatically Keon Themes [33] (Figure 16).    The most important real achievement in the Ottoman era is the construction of the Hejaz railway that was designed to transport pilgrims to Mecca and provide them with food, water, and what they need. Which in turn supported the role of trade and mobility between countries, learn about their cultures and architectural styles, and learn from them to develop and improve the infrastructure of the architecture in JordanRamil M. Valeev, Alim M. Abidulin,Nailya I. Ayupova [39].
The source of the Ottoman architecture is derived from two main sources: the somewhat complicated development of new architectural forms and the other source is Christian art (the Byzantine tradition that was glorified in the construction of the Hagia Sophia). The Byzantine influence appears in features such as stone and brick used together or in the use of suspended dome construction. The distinguishing feature of Ottoman architecture is that it was derived from both Islamic and European artistic traditions, and was, therefore, part of both Rabah Saoud [40].